“The temple in India is designed to serve many purposes — social, economic, aesthetic and religious” — Prof. S. K. Ramachandra Rao
A Hindu temple is a sacred abode of gods. The temple is an intellectual and artistic expression of Hinduism, focusing on both the spiritual and social lives of the Hindu community. Hindus believe that the goal of life is moksha — the realization of THE Absolute Supreme or Brahman, and artistic activities were one means to achieve this realization. A temple is a complex ecosystem representing different motifs from the Hindu philosophy and satisfying the emotional needs of everyday religious and spiritual life. It is ignorant to merely associate a temple with a set of beliefs; it is an institution with multi-dimensional relevance to society. An ancient Tamil epigraph “Do not live in a place without a temple” highlights the importance of a temple in Hindu society.
“Rituals are the symbols we use to mold our experiences” — Miriam Ben-Haim (psychologist)
A temple often houses many icons and these items are treated to various traditions and functions that are considered important by the community. Icons render different artistic expressions and evoke different emotions in the observer’s mind as well as have a utility value.
Rituals are performed mainly for their symbolic value. Humans have been associated with rituals from time immemorial. Temples incorporate social and religious rituals in equal measure. As a center of spirituality, it guides the community through their social and religious mores.
“The efficient administration of the temple necessitated the creation of various types of jobs, which gave rise to employment opportunities to people from different walks of life — Chithra Madhavan
1: Hinduism
To understand the Hindu temples, it is essential to understand the Indian Civilization that now incorporates the three main Indic traditions of Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. Hinduism represents many different beliefs and mores, practices, modes of living and thinking, and is much more than can be understood by the Western construct brought out by the word ‘religion’. Contrasting beliefs and social patterns from across the Indian sub-continent were weaved into a composite Hindu civilization.
While the notion of icons appears in the Vedic literature, iconoduly — worship of icons — is missing from the literature. Icons were in use for various purposes; however, the focus was on nature and abstract divine forces. Nevertheless, Vedic hymns symbolized everyday items that were later used to develop icons. In a Vedic hymn, the god to whom the hymn is addressed is considered the highest of all gods, the other gods are considered as aspects of this god.
Hinduism spans the complete spectrum of Indian culture from the everyday agricultural life of the village to the transcendental speculations of the philosophers — George Michell
Theism and Philosophy
As per the philosophy of Vedanta, there is but one Absolute Supreme called Brahman; and all that exists is a manifestation of this Brahman. However, many who have been able to transcend theism diverge from this main philosophy and adopt different schools of philosophy.
From the perspective of theism, Hinduism, by its very nature of amalgamation of diverse ideas and practices, is polytheistic. People worship a variety of gods in a variety of ways for various needs. Considering fears and desires, people manage to keep philosophy separate from theism, during their worship.
While Hinduism has many sacred texts, there is no single text that occupies an authoritarian or central role over the actual practice of Hinduism. This creates a vibrant, free, and pluralistic cultural framework to practice Hinduism. Hence, the Hinduism that is practiced, experienced, and transmitted can be considerably different from the Hinduism described in the scriptures.
Theism reflects the multitude of religious practices, and philosophy transcends actual practice.
“It is unfortunately not often recognized that in India monism and polytheism have always coexisted, and that they do not contradict each other. Monism is a matter of conviction of the reality of one principle, while polytheism is concerned with the practical approaches to aspected divinites.” — Prof. S. K. Ramachandra Rao
Why do Hindus have so many gods?
Vedic perspective describes just one facet of Hinduism. The Hindu religion is an amalgamation of beliefs and practices that existed among the peoples of the Indian Sub-Continent. With the sub-continent being one of the most populous and dense regions in the World, people with different beliefs co-existed simultaneously. Hinduism accommodated a place in its pantheon to all the gods from these regions. Several non-Vedic gods have found their way into the Hindu pantheon.
Hindu traditions rest based on the polytheistic framework. The idea of multiple divinities formed the basis of Hindu worship. The Vedic people had 3,339 gods, but these were a form of one of several smaller numbers of gods. In Rig Veda, the god to whom a hymn was addressed was regarded as the primary or highest god while the other gods were aspects of this god. It is commonly remarked that Hindus have 33,00,00,003 gods. However, this seems to be an extension of the 33 Vedic gods. Some scriptures point the 33 Vedic gods as following:
Another belief considers the 33 Vedic gods as following:
Over some time these 33 gods were condensed into 3 gods:
The above three gods became the framework for the more popular and widely held concept of Hindu Trinity: Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.
So, Hindus understand gods in several ways. A partial list of them is:
- As forms of one Supreme — the one who transcends description and understanding.
- As entities that rule different superhuman dimensions and planes.
- As entities that represent forces of nature.
- As entities that relate to the facets of everyday life. For example, local and village deities.
It is all confusing, so what is the final verdict?
While scholars might debate “One versus Many” gods, a Hindu leaves the answer to this question up to the individual. A noteworthy trait of the Hindu system is the tolerance to several beliefs. Hindus consider every individual to have a place in society; the truth is eternal, and the Supreme to be incomprehensible. Yet, the development of human thoughts over centuries was infused into the religious and philosophical components of Hinduism resulting in a multitude of deities, principles & practices.
2: Icons & Rituals
All over the world, humans have created icons that were symbolic and at the same time serve a purpose. Hindu polytheism is central to worshipping different Indian icons. An icon is associated with dhyana-sloka that describes the essential features like traits, weapons, postures, and powers.
Why are the icons bathed, clothed and fed? As an icon is a symbol of the god, the devotee by performing the ritual acts on the icon regards the god being served by the rituals.
The fundamental idea behind Hinduism is to achieve moksha. The architecture of the temple symbolically represents this quest. Hence the location and its plan are important to realize the divinity in the temple, a place where the boundary between humans and the divine is dissolved. It is a link between gods and humans. Rituals and ceremonies are the processes by which this link can be achieved.
Rituals and ceremonies invite the gods to temporarily reside in the deities of the temple. These processes are essential for the divinity to manifest in the temple, however temporarily allowing the devotees to focus and develop their spiritual insight.
Temple Icons meant to be installed in a temple are made of wood or stone. Mobile Icons that are used inside the temple are usually cast in metals. Household icons could be made of crystal, gem, or metals. Temporary icons are made of clay or other such material. For example even today the Ganapathi and Kali idols are made of clay, then worshipped and finally immersed in water-bodies. Various manuals provide instructions for idol carving. Idols not made by these rules are not revered and installed in the temples.
However, these rules themselves have evolved over centuries, just like Hinduism that has evolved and stayed relevant over the ages. Hence, for example, an idol of Vishnu carved in the 15th century could be different from the one carved in the 12th century; and these two could be different from the ones carved in the 10th century and so on. This is because Hinduism has remained an expression of the Hindus’ mind; and in a society that allows multiple theistic and philosophic thoughts to flourish and with numerous kingdoms patronizing arts and culture, the evolution of these rules was but natural and logical.
…in the ample hips and full breasts of the sculptured women, we perceive not the physical charm of the female form, but the majesty and mystery of the Divine Mother. — Shanti Sawrup
Abstract and Concrete Icons
Abstract icons do not have material representation. These icons are used in the worship of the Supreme without any attributes. This type of worship is called Sagunopaasana. These icons are called sakalamurtis. Some examples of these aniconic forms are Salagrama stone for Vishnu and linga form for Shiva.
A human being cannot conceptualize anything without some sort of a mental image — Bansi Pandit
Concrete icons are icons created by artists and associated with Nirgunopaasana — the form of worship where the Supreme is worshiped as a personal god. These icons are called nishkalamurtis. Some of these icons are mostly in human form with faces, limbs, and meanings, while other icons are created as ‘humanized animals’ — that is animals in human forms. Some examples are Hanuman (monkey), Garuda (Brahminy Kite) and Nandi (bull)
Immobile and Mobile Icons
The immobile (Achala) icons are carved and installed in the sanctum sanctorum of the temple and intended to be the main icon that is to be worshiped. For worship outside the sanctum, processions, festivals, and other rituals, the mobile (Chala) icons are used. These icons could be exact replicas of the immobile icon present in the sanctum. Mobile icons are usually concrete (sakalamurti). A third category called calachala also exists. These icons are worshiped in the sanctum and taken out for other ceremonies.
Values of Icons
In Samkhya philosophy, there are three major gunas (or qualities) that constitute the Prakriti (or the universe/nature). The three gunas are Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas. Icons are classified according to the gunas they signify.
Icons can be further classified into three based on their postures:
- sthanka (standing)
- asana (sitting)
- sayana (lying down)
These postures convey if the god represented by the icon is in a relaxed, contemplative, or aggressive mood. Only Lord Vishnu is depicted in the sayana posture.
…symbolism in religion expresses the attributes and qualities of Reality as conceived by the seekers of the Truth — Bansi Pandit
Icons have other characteristics like mudra — position of hands and fingers, asana — the posture of legs and feet, cihna — symbol, vasana — dress and abharana — ornaments. Icons that are depicted seated are often depicted sitting on pedestals or vahana — vehicle. Some examples of vahana are elephant for Indra, tiger for Durga/Parvati, peacock for Skanda (also known as Muruga), and mouse for Ganesha.
“The temples and statues are so many stages in the approach to moksha. — Stella Kramrisch
Two common mudra icons are of the form — varadamudra — offering boons and abhayamudra- assuring protection. Such icons are classified under the Sattivika guna. Idols of Vishnu, Ganesha, Shiva, and Saraswathi are some examples of this type of icon. Icons that stand or are on a vahana with mudra showing valor and bearing weapons come under Rajasa guna. Some examples of this type are Dancing Ganesha, Rama & Sita idols. Icons bearing warfare weapons, with cruel facial expression and gory adornments come under tamasic guna. Some examples of this variety are icons depicting Narasimha and Durga killing demons and Skanda (Muruga) leading an army against demons.
Why did gods battle with each other? Puranas often narrate instances where gods fought among themselves to gain supremacy over others. This is a mere expression of human rivalry over the ages.
Emblems
It has been a human trait to represent ideas (abstract) in the form of an object (concrete). As the saying goes, a picture is worth a thousand words. These objects that serve as a representation or symbol of a particular concept or quality are called ‘emblems’. Humans relied on everyday material and nature to depict these ideas. The icons of gods are usually surrounded or depicted to carrying these emblems. The following table lists some of the emblems and the idea behind them. {Source: The Book of Hindu Imagery. Eva Rudy Jansen}
Are some gods good while others bad?
Does it mean that idols depicting gods with peaceful and calm demeanor are ‘good’ gods and those depicting an act of killing, war, or cruelty are ‘bad’ gods? Why do we ignore such heinous postures or condone such acts of worship? Hindus believe gods manifest in various forms. The sattvika icons are worshiped in the cause of a devotee’s final liberation, while the rajasa icons are worshiped for protection and prosperity and the tamasic icons are worshiped at times of distress, calamity, and danger. Icons assist devotees in their contemplation of the divine; it offers means to sustain focus on the divinity for a longer time. The goal is to rise above the details of the icon to the divinity that the icon represents. Gods depicted as slaying someone denotes the victory of good over evil. The victims are usually individuals who embody human vices. There are a group of Hindu goddesses called the Saptamatrikas who are associated with inauspiciousness, destructive forces of nature and represent different vices. Legends and Puranas hint at the evolutionary role of these goddesses within Hinduism.
Holy Cow: Role of Animals
Hindus accord varying levels of respect to all forms of life-based on their impact on the lives of humans. Animals play an important role in the life of humans; they are a source of fear, awe, and energy. In the evolution of civilizations, humans were able to domesticate some animals and derive material benefits; but some animals remained wild. Some of the animals that inspired fear and awe were worshipped in various forms. While still another set of animals was used for food, agriculture, and transportation. The cow is just one among several animals that Hindus consider sacred. The usefulness of cow to the ancient Hindus turned into gratitude and reverence.
In the context of divinity, animals occupy the Hindus mind in three major forms: (a) Direct, (b) In the service of gods, (c) Full or part human representation. And, sometimes an animal will be worshiped in both direct and anthropomorphic forms. Animals have also been associated with cruelty and violence; and frequently demons and negative forces, just like gods, have some animals as their vehicles.
It should come as no surprise that the nature of humans is such that they can revere a life form at one time, yet abuse the same life form at another time. So is the case of several animals that find a unique and reverential place in the minds of Hindus. Humans under distress and duress will place themselves over and above all forms of life — including fellow humans. And, Hinduism constantly reminds Hindus of the significance of all life forms.
Why do gods have so many arms or faces?
The answer lies in the special features of Indian art that draws inspiration from nature and Hindu attitude towards divinity. A deity with multiple faces or limbs conveys a greater number of qualities and powers. In Greek art, the gods were idealized forms of human beauty without deeper meaning. However, in Indian art, the idols of gods are not idealized forms of human beauty. The idols, in Indian art, are created exactly as prescribed by the manuals. These manuals bring into play the concept of dhyana — meditation. Human minds tend to wander off to different subjects and the goal is to focus the mind on the divinity and obtain an image of the deity in his or her mind. Hence, while crafting an idol it is not necessary to idealize the human form but crystallize multiple ideas into one visual image. The image intends to impart a spiritual message. Thus some gods have multiple arms or faces, symbolizing superhuman energy, power, and message. This does not mean the craftsmen did not focus on the actual beauty of the idol; the beauty bestowed upon the idol was inspired by the beauty of nature as it was held high in regard by Indians.
“…the wealth and beauty of this art transcends even that of Classical Greek art, which is justifiably highly valued in our culture. — Eva Rudy Jansen
What distinguishes Indian art from Greek art?
The focus of Greek sculpture is in physical beauty; hence the sculptors sought perfection in their sculptures. The Indian sculptors focused on spirituality; hence less importance was given to aesthetics. Some of the sculptures were not anatomically perfect. The Greeks were obsessed with human beauty and relegated nature to insignificance, whereas Indians regarded humans as part of nature and thus a representation of humans and gods draw inspiration from nature and attempts to transcend it.
Shilpasastras
The Hindu sculptors were strictly guided by canons given in Shilpasastras when sculpting idols. Yet the Hindu sculptors blended their style and skill with the laws to create vivid and enchanting idols. Hindus observed the truth to be eternal yet individuals, objects, and ideas to be subjective to the forces of change. Instead of faithfully copying nature, the Hindus sought to represent principles and values through the deities. However, this was managed under strict rules as prescribed in several agamas.
An idol is a symbol of the divine is sculpted to convey special meanings. The postures, gestures, clothing, and accessories blend to meet the expectations of devotees.
3: Temple
“Just like a library provides the facilities, environment and the inspiration to study or do research, a temple provides the right environment and facilities for pursuing religious and spiritual life — Bansi Pandit
Why visit temples?
Hindus consider all places worthy of reverence and prayers. A temple, with the deities installed, invites special attraction. Devotees throng to chant mantras, sing devotional songs, pray or meditate. The temple offers an environment of positive vibrations that is conducive to the development of inner peace and spirituality. The mind is filled with content and a feeling that transcends happiness and sadness.
Worship
Worship (puja) is a religious practice with its set of rituals, and these rituals provide symbolic value to the worshiper. Worship is one of several ways to approach divinity. It is neither superior nor inferior to other forms. It is easier for humans to visualize the incomprehensible divinity into deities with concrete relatable attributes, especially with attributes that one is familiar with. For example, if one were to ask a person to think of an alien from a different solar system; our human minds invariably conjure the alien to resemble humans.
For the alien to move, we give it some form of legs; to obtain nourishment we give it some mechanism to eat, drink or absorb nutrients; we give it some form of eyes, brains, ears, etc. The number and shape of these organs are left to the human imagination. If the alien is the aggressor, we give it a mean and terrible look. Most of us find it tough to deal with the idea of an alien without human attributes and functions. So once we have grasped the idea of an alien, we can deal with the aliens better. Similarly, once we have molded divinity into an idol we easily recognize and relate; we can easily focus on the task of approaching it.
What are the prescribed worship rituals?
The worship rituals vary in the wide spectrum of Hinduism and some of the Hindu texts prescribe sixty-four services to be performed as part of the rituals; however, temples offer only sixteen services (shodasha upachara). Worship with these services is called shodashopachara puja. The services are modeled after the traditional hospitality accorded to guests.
- Avahanam — Invoking
- Asanam — Offering a seat
3. Padyam — Offering water to wash the feet
4. Arghyam — offering water to wash the hands
5. Achamaniyam — offering water to sip and rinse the mouth.
6. Snanam — providing a bath.
7. Vastram — offering fresh clothes and ornaments.
8. Yajnopavitam — offering the sacred thread.
9. Gandham / Chandanam — offering aromatic substances like sandal paste.
10. Pushpam — offering flowers.
11. Dhupam — burning incense
12. Dipam — waving lights, lit by camphor or cotton wicks.
13. Naivedam — offering food
14. Tambula — offering betel leaves, areca nuts, and spices
15. Namaskara, Anjali & Pradakshina — prostrations, bowing along with circumambulations.
16. Udvasanam — Farewell.
For brief worship, typically in a household, instead of the sixteen services, five services are prescribed and conducted. These are called panchopachara puja and are:
1. Avahanam — Inviting the divinity to participate in the ritual.
2. Sthapana — Seating and infusion of life-force /divinity into the idol. The idol becomes the divinity during the ritual.
3. Sannidhikarana — Establishing communion between the divinity and worshipper.
4. Puja / Archana — offering worship including Padyam, Gandham, Pushpam, dhupa, dipam, and naivedyam.
5. Udvasanam — Farewell.
How many times should worship be conducted?
Typically, worship in a temple is conducted three times a day and is called Trikala puja. Tri signifies three and Kala occasion/time. The rituals are performed once in the morning, afternoon, and evening. Some temples conduct these worship six times, and these worship are called shatkala puja. Shat means six.
What is the significance of ringing bells?
Bells are sounded before the commencement of worship to invite the gods to assemble and drive away evil forces. The bells are also sounded during several worship sequences as well, like dipam, snanam, naivedya. The waving of lights (dipam) along with ringing bells are sometimes done elaborately towards the end of puja in front of a large gathering of devotees singing praises of the divinity, moving all devotees into a deep state of devotion (bhakti).
Why do devotees walk around deities and temple structures?
Walking around deities and the temple structure is called circumambulation; in Sanskrit, it is called Pradakshina. While the devotees could walk for several reasons, the primary reason is to take their mind through different emotions and eventually help them blend with the divinity. Looking at the temple, the devotee is always reminded about the purpose of the structure and the nature of god. The temple complex is a monument that consists of several structures that are decorated with sculptures to inspire and draw attention to the gods. The inner-most cubicle chamber, known as garbhagraha, houses the deity. The inner walls of this chamber, as a rule, do not have any sculpture or they are very plain. In the process of walking around the deities and temple structures, the devotees see enthralling art drawing different emotions; but as they near the inner chamber, they face only the main deity that grabs all their focus and energy. This process of walking first makes them part of the temple architecture and slowly takes them to the divinity that has come to reside in the statue of the inner chamber. The mind at first is elated looking at the wonderful artwork and slowly is calmed down to focus on the divinity. As the devotees walk around deities and temple structures, they are drawn to the sculptures and feel their impact, they pause to pray or meditate. The hall near garbhagraha, called the Mandapa, usually has burning incense sticks, scented flowers, fruits, and other effects of the temple, that infuse the devotee with soothing and peaceful. The hall and other parts of the temple are dimly lit, shielding the devotee from harsh lights. They also shield the devotees from nature’s other elements like wind and rain. The cool and serene atmosphere helps the mind relax. The action reminds them of the divinity’s presence in the building and around them. It helps them become part of the divinity. Sometimes the devotees reverently touch the icons and then their own body. This practice comes from the ancient Indian importance to the sense of touch.
Larger temples, sometimes, contain several smaller temples in their premises. And in some temples, there is a passage around the garbhagraha, for the devotees to walk around. Along these passages, the devotee by walking and meditating on the god seeks communion with god than looking at sculptures. In such passages, the art and visual awe take a backseat and the mind is focused on the divinity within.
Festivals
A festival is an event that produces happiness and excitement in people. Festivals bring out social solidarity in a community. People gather not just for religious causes, but social, spiritual, and economic reasons. At the household level, festivals are an event where family members convene and offer worship as per family traditions. Festivals at the temple level invite the participation of the community to focus their energy towards a common social cause.
Why are temple worships formal and elaborate?
By its very nature, temple worships are conducted for the welfare of the community and public participation is important. The processions, festivals, and other elaborate rituals are for entertainment and enjoyment that are but secondary to the primary objective — worship of the divinity. Besides, the temple is a public institution causes people from the local community to conduct the festivals and transcends community divides and families. Such spectacular events require a formal organizational structure to conduct the festivals safely and joyously.
What is Brahmotsava?
Brahmotsava is one of the most important festivals conducted in a temple in honor of the main deity by Brahma. Being an important temple festival it attracts large devotees and is grand and colorful. The event is notable for the impressive procession of the deity in a temple chariot. Traditionally, this procession weaved through the main streets of a village or town. The temple chariot was stopped at regular intervals for the community to offer their respect and love for the divinity.
Architecture
The Hindu temple architecture is rooted in the Hindu worldview. The temple reflects the image of the Universe. The temple architecture embodies the concept of divinity manifesting into concrete forms. The icons and temple structure represent these concrete forms.
Architecture evolution
Continuity pervades as a central theme in the architectural evolution. However, the evolution took place within the boundaries of laws laid out by Shilpasastras. Apart from strict rules on sizes, proportions, etc, these laws were based on the Hindu view of life and religion. The sculptors worked within these confines and evolved the art of sculpting and temple building.
The knowledge and art of sculpting were handed over generations via teacher to pupil and father to sons. An individual learned the art and incorporated his ingenuity with the established principles of sculpting. He later passed this down to his pupils and sons. Hence, the Hindu temple architecture combined conservative principles, continuity, and transformation over several thousands of years. The principles have changed over the period as well. For example during the Gupta Age, the temples in regions of Gupta were flat-roofed, only around the 7th A.D, did the temples throw up superstructures that arose like skyscrapers. The earlier temple architecture consisted of solid geometric components without elaborate sculpture. Going back to the Vedic times, a temple could exist in the mind of an individual. The architecture evolved with the changing role of the temple in society.
“Indian temple architecture, in the fullness of its development, establishes in spatial terms an intellectual and actual approach to the Supreme Principle of which the deity is symbolic. –Stella Kramrisch
Architecture styles
The Indian temple architecture falls into two broad categories: Nagara and Dravida, deriving inspiration from Northern and Southern India, respectively. However, these categories grew from a common pan-Indian artistic heritage. Some traditions consider a third category Vesara- a hybrid of Nagara and Dravida style. Yet, some inscriptions and texts point out numerous other architectural styles like Sekhari, Bhumija, and Phamsana. The climate
Architectural Characteristics
Irrespective of the architectural style, the purpose of a temple is to be the house of god — devalaya. The focal point is the sanctuary called garbhagraha where the god resides — the idol is installed. Usually, the garbhagraha has a single narrow doorway facing east, through which the Sun’s rays shine on the idol. The worship offered in the garbhagraha helps the worshipers to gain a renewed life. It is the womb that provides the means to self-realization.
A superstructure rises above the garbhagraha representing the manifestation of the divinity. The manifestation is not a single event but a cycle of growth and decay. The superstructure symbolizes the concept of repeating cycles of creation and dissolution of the Universe. This cyclic pattern is a key element in Hinduism.
The superstructure is considered as a temple over a temple, like in a heavenly temple over an earthly temple. The structure evokes an image of a many-storied heavenly home, yet the whole structure is a composite one containing several smaller abodes. The Nagara and Dravida superstructure have distinct variations that are easily recognizable. The Nagara structure is a curved sphire called Sikhara; while the Dravida structure is tiered-pyramid with a dome-like top.
In the Nagara style, the sanctuary and the superstructure are together called the Mulaprasada; and in the Dravida style, they are called the Vimana. Symbolically, this superstructure is considered the body of the divinity as well — so it is both the body and the house for the body. Hence the exterior of this superstructure is elaborately decorated or carved. These decorations are not superficial, but signify the concept of “embeddedness” — in which an image appears to be embedded into something else or as if it is emerging from a background. These embedded images are usually enclosed in shrines following the concept of “enshrinement”.
“It is no doubt partly the sculptural exteriority of Indian temple architecture that makes it difficult for western eyes accustomed to seeing architecture primarily in terms of interior space. — Adam Hardy
In front of the garbhagraha doorway was the Mandapa; a hall for the devotees to assemble. Initially, this hall was small enough for an individual and the priest, as the Hindu worship ritual is mainly for self. Gradually as temples began to evolve into a complex socio-religious-economic system, the small hall began to grow large to accommodate the local community. In big temples, the halls were so large that pillars had to be erected to support the hall’s roof. These pillars were in turn richly carved where the sculptors let loose their imagination and brought out some of the best portrayal of everyday life in those times.
Temple parts representing the Cosmic Person
The various temple parts represent the various parts of the Cosmic Person. The below table summarizes them:
Credits:
I thank S. Venkateswar for gifting me the book “Temples: Icons & Rituals” by Prof. S.K.Ramachandra Rao which inspired me to write a two page summary of the book for my children. However, the subject was so interesting I began to read more books and web articles that eventually led me to this e-book. I thank Vishal Agarwal for reviewing my first draft of a few pages in length and encouraging me to make this into an e-book. I am indebted to Vasanthan Raghavan for reviewing and suggesting changes, Saumik Narayanan for some of the graphics, N.Karthik, Vijay Kumar (of Poetry in Stone fame) and Saurabh Saxena (of Puratattava fame) for some of the photos I borrowed from them.
This does not mean the reviewers endorse parts or the whole of this article.
References:
1. Temples: Icons & Rituals. S.K.Ramachandra Rao. Prof. S.K.Ramachandra Rao Memorial Trust. 2008.
2. The Hindu Temple: An introduction to its meaning and forms. George Michell. University of Chicago Press Edition 1988.
3. What is Hinduism? Himalayan Academy. 2007.
4. Hindu Rites, Rituals, Customs & Traditions. Prem P. Bhall. Hindoology Books. 2009.
5. Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation. Adam Hardy. Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts. 1995.
6. The Arts and Crafts of India and Pakistan. Shanti Swarup. D.B.Taraporewalla Sons & Co. Pvt. Ltd. 1957.
7. The Art of India: Traditions of Indian Sculpture Painting and Architecture. Stella Kramrisch. The Phaidon Press. 1954.
8. The Hindu temple, Volume 2. Stella Kramrisch, Raymond Burnier. Stella Kramrisch. 1976.
9. Fundamentals of Indian Art. S.N.Dasgupta. Bhavan’s Book University. 1954.
10. History and Culture of Tamil Nadu — As gleaned from the Sanskrit Inscriptions. Chithra Madhavan. D.K.Printworld. 2005.
11. Iconography of South India. G. Jouveau-Dubreuil. Translation from the French by A.C.Martin. 1937.
12. The Book of Hindu Imagery — Gods, Manifestations, and Their Meaning. Eva Rudy Jansen. Binkey Kok Publications. 1993.
13. The Hindu Mind: Fundamentals of Hindu Religion and Philosophy for all Ages. Bansi Pandit. New Age Books. 2009.
14. Indian Temple Sculpture. A Goswami. Lalit Kala Academy. 1956.
15. http://www.exploremyspace.com/hinduvideo.htm
17. http://atheism.about.com/od/doesgodexist/a/capitalization.htm
18. http://www.exoticindiaart.com/article/hindutemple/
19. http://www.indianetzone.com/26/iconography_hindu_temples.htm
